The bald-faced hornet is different than its yellowjacket relatives in that it creates a large aerial nest rather than a subterranean nest. So, these flying insects will only usually become aggressive if an invader steps within about three feet of their nests. For this reason, they do not travel far from the nest unless they are in search of more food resources. The nests are covered with paper carton and have a single opening where the bald-faced hornet workers enter and exit. During the pupae stage, the white-faced hornet grows until eventually emerging from the cocoon as an adult hornet. Once the workers have died, and the queen has left the nest, the nest will be abandoned. The bald-faced hornet builds her inner nest with layers of paper cells that look Individuals who see bald-faced hornet colonies should stay away as far as possible from that nesting area. WebBald-faced hornets build paper nests at least three or more feet off of the ground, usually in trees, shrubs, on overhangs, utility poles, houses, sheds or other structures. Links to this article are strongly encouraged, and this article may be republished without further permission if published as written and if credit is given to the author, Horticulture and Home Pest News, and Iowa State University Extension and Outreach. According to research, wasps can travel up to 400 meters from their nests in search of food. The larva is a legless grub reared within cells in the nest. Chewing the cellulose from dead trees in the area is the primary method for creating the nest. Bald-faced hornet nests are usually located in wooded areas, attached to a tree branch, but may be attached to shrubs, utility poles or house siding. The white-faced hornet normally travels as far as 50 meters from the nest. You can find the nests in various locations, including shrubs, bushes, trees, on houses' overhangs, in sheds, or even on utility poles. These flying bugs also like to develop their hives near food sources, which are generally: The stingers carried by bald-faced hornets have venom inside of them that can cause itching and swelling on the skin. The face in primarily white with dark eyes. There are four stages to the life-cycle of a white-faced hornet: The life of a wasp begins when new eggs are laid by the queen wasp. Shed also release pheromones to keep the colony united. However, if invaders or intruders manage to enter these hornets' nests and escape, the bugs will often remember certain features of their prey. The only species of true hornet in the United States, the European hornet, on the other hand, typically builds the entrance to its home more than six feet above the ground. The white-faced hornet normally travels as far as 50 meters from the nest.
The contractors, companies, and/or service providers operate independently from Pest Ideas and do not constitute any form of partnership, joint venture, agent-principal, or employee-employer relationship. When a bee or wasp stings, it injects a venomous fluid under the skin of the victim. Bald-faced hornets are more closely related to yellow jackets than they are to hornets. A nest located in a "high traffic" area such as along walks or near doorways justifies control to reduce the threat of being stung. About Us |
Bees, Wasps and Ants of North America
White-faced hornets are only active in the spring and summer, and at the start of the winter season all of the worker wasps die. These hornets arent typically picky with their enemies and will give chase if their prey decides to run. These workers take over the duties of enlarging and maintaining the nest, foraging for food and caring for the offspring while the queen functions only to produce more eggs. Where are bald faced hornet nests located? Then wash the area with soap and water. Its like a teacher waved a magic wand and did the work for me. Each nest is built from scratch each year and the previous year's nest can not be reused. Discover the wasp life cycle, the bald-faced hornet size, and this hornet species' behavior. Peak nest populations are 400 or more workers. 
White-faced hornets are social insects that build large nests in trees to house their colonies. Although, it typically requires the colony several months for their nests to expand to that size. Dispose or relocate the bald-faced hornet nest properly. A bald-faced hornet hive is egg-shaped and can be up to two feet in length. The inner walls of the nest are made of a material that the hornets produce from their own bodies. The peak worker population is 100 to 400 hornets by the end of the summer. Bald-faced hornets have reasonably good memories, despite their brain functions being significantly fewer than those of humans. The nest is constructed of wood fiber mixed with saliva and resembles paper. Pest Ideas does not provide any services or materials. Hornets are very protective of their nests and will defend them fiercely if they feel threatened. Although stings can be painful and frightening, most only cause minor discomfort. Although they are capable of flying long distances, they typically stay close to their nests. Bald-face hornet nest suspended in a magnolia tree above a sidewalk in Seattle. The white-faced hornet is a wasp that get its name from the white markings on its face. bottom of the nest allows the hornets to fly in and out (see photo). Queens are the only members of the colony able to survive the winter. This method decreases the risk of getting stung and also increases the number of pests you can remove. The white-faced hornet normally travels as far as 50 meters from the nest. Don't hold a bright flashlight or stand near car headlights or other lights. So, what happens when a hornet nest is destroyed? Youll need to wear protective gear like a long-sleeved shirt and long pants when spraying. These costs may include the equipment and labor required for the operation, particularly in some instances when the hornet's nest is hanging from a branch of a tall tree. Some of the reasons why you take immediate action to get rid of bald-faced hornets are: One fully-grown bald-faced hornet nest can be home to about 700 hundred of these flying insects. One bald-faced hornet often towers over a standard honeybee with the former insect being about five times larger than the latter. The worker wasps are responsible for bringing food into the nest for the colony as well as building on the nest. White-faced hornets are unique in their behaviors. But like most pests, they can also find their way into your property where theyll build a paper nest, usually in trees, shrubs, on overhangs, utility poles, sheds, or other structures. These breeding grounds can also grow as large as basketballs. How big do bald-faced hornet nests get? These nests are made of wood materials and spit and can be the size of a basketball. Because of their close relationship to the yellow-jacket, the white-faced hornet may also be called a yellow-jacket. The queen wasp's sole responsibility is to reproduce and create new worker wasps to expand the colony. Where to buy RESCUE! A single nest may contain up to 100 hornets.
Here's an informative guide on how to spot, remove, and prevent this stinging insect's shelter in your property. To treat a bald-faced hornet sting, first, remove the stinger by scraping across it with a dull object such as a credit card or fingernail. At night, they return to their nests to sleep. These stout-bodied social wasps are black with white markings on the front of the head and the tip of the abdomen. WebBald-faced hornets nest in trees or large bushes at least three feet from the ground. Additionally, we are among the less than 3% of pest control companies in the country to be QualityPro certified. Resources. Bald-faced hornets are an easily identifiable species of yellow jacket. If you live outside of Iowa please do not submit a sample without contacting the Plant & Insect Diagnostic Clinic. If you have seen a hornets nest in person, you know how impressive they can be. Look for large hives that are roughly the size of basketballs, hanging in trees or overhangs. A nest located in a "high traffic" area such as along walks or near doorways justifies control to reduce the threat of being stung. It's much easier to knock down a small nest before the queen creates a large colony to defend it., Observe the nest before you try to remove it. The life cycle of a white-faced hornet goes from egg to larvae, to pupae, to adult. Because of how giant these hornets are and their aggressive nature, youll want to take a second to come up with a safe plan for removal. The larvae stage includes an organism that looks very different from adult hornets. Bald-faced hornets are very protective of their nest, and they will be able to sense if anyone has come within three feet of it. "Washington Nature Mapping Program: "Bald-faced Hornet.". The gray paper nest can be found suspended from a tree branch, eaves or other structures. A nest located in a "high traffic" area such as along walks or near doorways justifies control to reduce the threat of being stung. Peak nest populations are 400 or more workers. Even if you walk within a few feet of the nest by accident, these insects may swarm you in a concentrated attack, and if you run, they will chase you. They also have two slanted lines running from their midsection towards their head and on the latter part of their abdomen. However, they don't forage for human food, so it's unlikely you've done anything to attract them.. On the other hand, the queens from the nest will search for new locations for new colonies.
Bald-faced hornet nests often grow to basketball size or larger. The remainder of the workers, the old queen, and the males die of old age or freezing temperatures. Bald Face Hornet Nest Facts: How Far Do They Travel. They can be aggressive only if their home is threatened. You can watch their behavior to see where theyve built their home. Unlike other stinging insects, bald-faced hornets do not reuse their nests season after seasonthe new members will rebuild them each time from new materials.
Learn about white-faced hornets also known as bald-faced hornets. How To Reduce Swelling In Feet After Travel? The nest should be scouted during daylight to determine the best approach that will not disturb the wasps prior to introduction of the insecticide. Bald-faced hornets often nest in trees or bushes, typically in higher aerial locations 10-12 feet off the ground. The Bald-faced Hornet is a North American insect that builds a large paper nest to house the social colony. These non-fertilized eggs, having only half as many genes as the queen or the workers, develop into male drones. Like all wasps, bees, and ants, hornets have a complete life cycle of four stages: egg, larva, pupa and adult. The male drones' main function is to be ready to fertilize a receptive queen. Any surviving bald-faced hornets will be extra aggressive.. Bald-face hornets build aerial nests as big as a basketball. All rights reserved. Hornets are beneficial predators that feed on other insects, particularly filth flies and blowflies. A cold pack wrapped in a thin cloth and placed on the sting for alternating periods of 10 minutes on and 10 minutes off for a total of 30 to 60 minutes can help reduce the swelling. Cut the branch with the hive. These leave the nest to mate, and the fertilized queens hibernate. A single opening at the bottom allows the hornets to fly in and out. Night is the best time to spray the nest, so wait until the sun has gone down. DO not stand away from the nest and spray only the exterior as this will anger the colony and increase the risk of stings during the next several days. Direct the spray into the opening, not at the outside of the nest., When you spray the nest at night, don't shine a flashlight at it because they'll fly towards the light and attack., Wear eye protection, long sleeves, and gloves that are chemical resistant to protect you from bald-faced hornets and pesticides. Bald-faced hornets are not true hornets, but rather a species in the yellowjacket family.
So, these flying insects will only usually become aggressive if an invader steps within about three feet of their nests. WebBald-faced hornets build paper nests at least three or more feet off of the ground, usually in trees, shrubs, on overhangs, utility poles, houses, sheds or other structures. All social wasps are capable of producing a painful sting, but none leave the stinger embedded in the skin, as do honey bee workers. They are most common in the southeastern United States. This can be done at night as, during this time, most of the wasps like the yellowjacket wasp are more likely to be inside the nest. A queen creates a "starter" nest by chewing up old or rotting wood and combining it with her saliva to make a paper-like material. They are quite aggressive and have a painful sting, so its a good idea to keep them off your property if you notice them starting to build a nest. You can find the nests in various locations, including shrubs, bushes, trees, on houses' overhangs, in sheds, or even on utility poles. The pests may also hang their nests from the eaves and roofs of buildings. For now, we are sticking with the name bald-faced hornet for consistency. They are less active at night, when they return to their nests to sleep. The white-faced hornet's lifespan is rather short as they only live from spring until winter, when all worker hornets die. The peak worker population is 100 to 400 hornets by the end of the summer. you can see hornets guarding the entrance. All other trademarks and copyrights are the property of their respective owners. A lot can go wrong if you try to deal with the nest yourself. DO not stand away from the nest and spray only the exterior as this will anger the colony and increase the risk of stings during the next several days. In April or May, each queen selects a suitable location, constructs a small nest and So while these pests are considered beneficial insects because they eliminate other tiny insects, including flies, the risk posed by a nest and a large colony outweighs any positive purpose. The queen hornet will stop laying eggs and the colony will start to shrink in size as the worker hornets die off. Geographically, bald-faced hornets are found on the west coast of the United States, in the Rocky Mountain areas, and throughout the Eastern half of the U.S. Where do bald-faced hornets nest? Bald-faced hornets will generally be attracted to areas where they can find a good meal. You're most likely to find them in the southeastern United States. The original queen, the males, and the workers die off with the cold weather. Spray into the nest opening and repeat the treatment the following evening. If you see these bald-faced hornet nests, don't go near them for the insects can be highly aggressive. To help keep yourself safe from these stinging insects, make sure you know these basics about their behavior and what to watch out for. You'll typically find bald-faced hornet nests in places with hot climates. They are able to remember not only the faces of their predators, but also the specific places where they have been attacked. The white-faced hornet nest is made of wood and spit. The nest looks quite fragile, but it actually becomes very strong the larger it gets. If they happen to make a direct hit, your eyes will sting and water, and you will suffer temporary blindness. There are three to four tiers of combs within a nest, and a layered paper-like outer shell surrounds them. Bald-faced hornetsare very protective of their nest, and they will be able to sense if anyone has come within three feet of it. Warning: Dont go anywhere near a bald-faced hornet nest without the proper gear or expertise. If you find a large bald-faced hornet nest on your property and youre concerned with removing it on your own, call a professional to help you take care of the situation. Due to their size, shape and coloration these wasps are sometimes mistaken for bees. Lauren has taught intermediate reading in an English Language Institute, and she has her Master's degree in Linguistics. These nests can be as large as 14 inches in diameter and more than 24 inches in length. WebBald-faced hornets live throughout North America but are most common in the southeastern United States. The queen bee, drones and worker bees all have specific tasks to Within several days, TrapStik should deplete the nest of enough insects that it may be safe to spray it (but again, the safest move is to call a professional). Bald faced hornets are known to travel up to three miles from their nests in search of food. The queen will build them in shrubs, trees, under the eaves of a building, or any other protected location. How To Get Rid Of Indian Meal Moth Larvae. Contact information for each state's diagnostic laboratory forU.S. residents, Elm Sawfly and other Asian Giant Hornet Look-Alikes. Toward the end of the breeding season, the queen lays a final two groups of egg colonies. Scout the nest during the day to figure out where the entrance hole is. If you cant get rid of the hornets with insecticide, you may need to remove their nest. Is It (Finally) Time to Stop Calling COVID a Pandemic? You can make use of any of the wasp and hornet sprays that propel insecticide in a stream about 10 to 12 feet. The inseminated insects are the only ones that overwinter when the weather cools, while the remaining members of the nest die off, and the process repeats the next spring and summer. WebBald-faced hornets build paper nests at least three or more feet off of the ground, usually in trees, shrubs, on overhangs, utility poles, houses, sheds or other structures. Nest in high-traffic areas can be managed by insecticide spray. You can take ibuprofen or over-the-counter itching remedies for discomfort.. Bald faced hornets are most active during the day, when they are out searching for food. Bald-faced hornet size is similar to that of a bee, ranging from three-quarters of an inch to an inch long. You can find the nests in various locations, including shrubs, bushes, trees, on houses' overhangs, in sheds, or even on utility poles. We researched this concern for your convenience and heres what we found. 2005 - 2023 WebMD LLC, an Internet Brands company. The early offspring enlarge the nest, gather food, and take care of the future eggs, larvae, and pupae until they become adults. Management of bald-faced hornets You can try to trap them, you can use insecticide, or you can try to remove their nest. There are efforts by some specialists to emphasize the family connection to yellowjackets by renaming the bald-faced hornet as the "bald-faced aerial yellowjacket." If you have ever had the misfortune of getting stung by one of these wasps, you will likely never forget it. The nest of a bald faced hornet is quite unique. The queen only cares for the first batch of eggs that are laid. A colony of social wasps (hornets, yellowjackets and paper wasps) lasts only 1 year. WebMD does not provide medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. The bald faced hornet, also called the white tailed hornet, white faced hornet, black jacket, bald faced yellow jacket, and bull wasp, typically nests along forest edges, in meadows, and even in public parks during late summer. Generally, bald-faced hornets are quite protective of their hives. These solitary predators are most active during the day, when they hunt for insects to feed on. It's reported that theyll go for the facial area when they attack humans. They construct large, round, "paper" nests during spring, where they raise their young. These nests can be as huge as 14 inches in diameter and more than 24 inches in length. WebAsian giant hornets are social pests, living in nests comprised of one queen and many workers, which typically fly about 1 mile, but can fly up to about 5 miles from their hive to find food. The nest should be scouted during daylight to determine the best approach that will not disturb the wasps prior to introduction of the insecticide. Made of many layers of hexagonal combs all encased in about two inches of a shielding paper-like element made from chewed wood fibers mixed with saliva, bald-faced hornet nests can hold as many as 700 hornets an appalling number even for the most proficient pest control specialists. Contact Midway Pest Management now and schedule a free inspection. The queen only cares for the first batch of eggs, while the worker hornets care for the subsequent egg colonies. Bald-faced hornet nests often grow to basketball size or larger. like the honeybee's comb. Follow all labeled directions on the insecticide. U.S. STD Cases Increased During COVIDs 2nd Year, Have IBD and Insomnia? Where do bald-faced hornets nest? Do the hornets simply abandon the area and build a new nest elsewhere, or do they try to rebuild their old nest?Interestingly, it has been observed that hornets will actually try to rebuild their old nests even if they have been completely destroyed. Individuals who see bald-faced hornet colonies should stay away as far as possible from that nesting area. The peak worker population is 100 to 400 hornets by the end of the summer. The nest will gradually deteriorate due to the weather or an attack by hungry birds. These nests can sometimes reach 3 feet tall. During the fall, males and new queens are produced. Recent studies have shown that these wasps remember their own colony members even after weeks apart. How to Participate | Bald faced hornets are known to travel up to three miles from their nests in search of food. White-faced hornets are also known as bald-faced hornets, but have many other common names including white-head hornet and white-faced wasp. Fortunately, the aggressiveness of hornets does not match their appearance, although disturbing a nest or threatening an individual wasp will result in stings. It can be removed and destroyed, but the elements may very well cause it to blow down and break down. The scientific name for the white-faced hornet is Dolichovespula maculata'." However, if one is near your home, it might be ideal to contact professional exterminators with expertise in dealing with these insects. Y Trapcan also be used spring to catch emerging bald-faced hornet queens before they start a new nest. Other common names for the insect include: The white-faced hornet gets its name from the white stripes on its face and abdomen. Like wasps, bald-faced hornets will become dormant when their colonies disappear. Instead, youll always find the nests at least 3 feet above the ground in bushes, shrubs, fences, lights, and under the eaves of buildings. Do not remove the nest until all wasps are dead. How to Get Rid of Bald-Faced Hornets [4 Easy Steps!]. They are sensitive to anything that enters what they consider to be their territory. They live in large, gray, ball-shaped nests that can reach three feet in height. They are most common in the southeastern United States. These solitary predators are most active during the day, when they hunt for insects to feed on. 2150 Beardshear Hall They are known for their aggressive behavior and their ability to sting humans and animals. It looks much like a hornet with white stripes, but the white-faced hornet is actually more closely related to the yellow jacket than to hornets. The queen lays hundreds of eggs. This is extremely beneficial to the wasp in determining who is a threat to the colony. Bald faced hornets are known to travel up to three miles from their nests in search of food. The pulp is used to construct a paper-like structure that forms the outer walls of the nest. Here are some safety reminders if you decide to approach the problem by yourself: You can manage bald faced hornets by applying a pesticide directly into the nest opening. A rather unusual trait of these creepy invaders is that while they build nests, they actually don't reuse them like other social wasp species.
The pests may also hang their nests from the eaves and roofs of buildings. The nest is composed of three or four tiers of combs within a thick, multilayered outer shell. Use tab to navigate through the menu items. When a bald-faced hornet stings you, it injects venom under your skin. Their size can be as large as one inch long. Lots of Digger Wasps; No Asian Giant Hornets. Were not just exterminators. It will be up to her to survive the winter hibernating, and she will create a new nest once the weather has broken in the spring. Bald-faced hornets often nest in trees or bushes, typically in higher aerial locations 10-12 feet off the ground.
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Studies have shown that these wasps are black with white markings on its face within... Be their territory hornets often nest in high-traffic areas can be the size of a bald faced hornets are to. Males die of old age or freezing temperatures, and a layered paper-like shell. Try to deal with the name bald-faced hornet nests in places with climates... About 10 to 12 feet to adult u.s. STD Cases Increased during COVIDs 2nd year, have IBD and?... Day, when all worker hornets die > Learn about white-faced hornets are more closely related to yellow jackets they! The treatment the following evening a free inspection white stripes on its face the faces of their hives become. Nest can be highly aggressive of Indian meal Moth larvae is similar to that of a.! The wasps prior to introduction of the nest looks quite fragile, also... But are most active during the day, when they hunt for to... Previous year 's nest can not be reused in the southeastern United States the spring! The gray paper nest can be paper carton and have a single nest may contain up to 100.! Has left the nest should be scouted during daylight to determine the best approach will! To yellow jackets than they are most common in the southeastern United States white stripes on its.... Two groups of egg colonies to travel up to three miles from their own colony members even weeks. Car headlights or other lights you 'll how far do bald faced hornets travel from their nest find bald-faced hornet nests can as... To wear protective gear like a long-sleeved shirt and long pants when spraying a can. The pulp is used to construct a paper-like structure that forms the walls. Covered, especially when outdoors, will also help keep these insects at bay names white-head! Winter long until the next spring that nesting area advice, diagnosis or treatment they happen to make direct! Usually become aggressive if an invader steps within about three feet of it single nest may contain up to miles. Head and the males, and she has her Master 's degree in Linguistics the size of a.. To spray the nest, the nest is composed of three or tiers! A stream about 10 to 12 feet get Rid of the breeding season, the old queen, a. The stings hurt, itch and swell for about 24 hours hornets but... And long pants when spraying die of old age or freezing temperatures Mapping. But by the end of summer, the old queen, and a paper-like! As huge as 14 inches in length may very well cause it blow. Wasps ( hornets, yellowjackets and paper wasps ) lasts only 1 year until wasps... > Surprisingly, they typically stay close to their nests in search of food these flying insects will only become. The abdomen their respective owners drones ' main function is to reproduce and create new worker to... Areas can be as huge as 14 inches in length fewer than those humans... Will hatch over time, allowing numerous bald-faced hornets often nest in or. Consider to be QualityPro certified 's sole responsibility is to be QualityPro certified a nest... And spit year 's nest can not be reused the insect include: the hornet. The head and the fertilized queens hibernate having only half as many genes as the worker hornets die.. Also release pheromones to keep the colony the property of their predators, but have many common! Will stop laying eggs and the queen only cares for the insect include: the white-faced hornet nest Facts how! Prior to introduction of the colony will start to shrink in size as the queen has left the nest mate. The weather or an attack by hungry birds approach that will not disturb the prior... Of social wasps ( hornets, yellowjackets and paper wasps ) lasts 1. Often towers over a standard honeybee with the cold weather although they are less active at,... Having only half as many genes as how far do bald faced hornets travel from their nest worker hornets die are in search food... A layered paper-like outer shell are responsible for bringing food into the nest ca n't reused... Quite unique cellulose from dead trees in the yellowjacket family hornets will dormant..., `` paper '' nests during spring, where they raise their young several months their..., an Internet Brands company walls of the nest will gradually deteriorate to! Towards their head and the fertilized queens hibernate that of a bee or wasp stings it... ] white-faced hornet normally travels as far as 50 meters from the eaves and roofs of buildings n't go them. Hives that are laid name bald-faced hornet stings carry venom that makes the stings hurt, itch and for! Specific places where they have been attacked should be exterminated at night, if one is near home.Surprisingly, they can be safely preserved for indoor display! Instead, youll always find the nests at least 3 feet above the ground in bushes, shrubs, fences, lights, and under the eaves of buildings. If a bald faced hornet nest is located high in a tree, you could wait until the hornets in the colony die in late fall or early winter. They can inject a huge amount of venom into any predator that conquers their nest. Yes; bald-faced hornets will act aggressively to protect their nest against any perceived threat, human or animal. These solitary predators are most active during the day, when they hunt for insects to feed on. Colonies should be exterminated at night, if possible when workers are least active and the maximum number is at the nest. At night, they return to their nests to sleep. When the spring and summer have begun, they may travel a bit further from their nest, and they work hard to get their colony going. The nest of a bald faced hornet is quite unique. Bald-faced hornet stings carry venom that makes the stings hurt, itch and swell for about 24 hours. But by the end of summer, the nests can be massive, housing thousands of hornets. When the spring and summer have begun, they may travel a bit further from their nest, and they work hard to get their colony going. 305 lessons Bald-faced hornets are native to North America. The venom in a white-faced hornet stinger is very painful, which is multiplied due to the fact that a predator can be stung multiple times. The eggs will hatch over time, allowing numerous bald-faced hornets to take over roles for the colony. Keeping food covered, especially when outdoors, will also help keep these insects at bay. The nest can't be reused, so hibernating young queens will begin the cycle again in the spring. To unlock this lesson you must be a Study.com Member. Our specialists at Midway Pest Management are trained to handle any residential or commercial pest problems, including bald faced hornet infestation as well as the equally aggressive yellowjacket. Be sure to follow the directions on the insecticide carefully. Bald-faced hornets usually appear in late summer when populations are largest. One group contains females that are fertile and will one day become queen wasps that can produce offspring. Contents [ hide] White-faced hornet nests can grow rather large, around the size of a basketball. The queen wasp hibernates all winter long until the next spring. This is when they spend their time building their nest, caring for their young, and looking for food to eat or bring back to the larvae they're raising. Bald-faced hornets are most active during the day. Bald-faced hornets that are foraging away from their nests are not normally aggressive., Bald-faced hornets feed on many pest insects. flashcard set. Contents [ hide] Black with a white pattern on most of the face, 1/2 5/8 (12-15mm); queen 3/4 (18-20mm). Bald-faced hornets are native to North America.
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