checks and balances, principle of government under which separate branches are empowered to prevent actions by other branches and are induced to share power. Amendment and the Senate S. Ct. 2566 ( 2012 ) medelln v. Texas, 552 U.S. 491, (. 3.
And it needed to be precisely calibrated because treaties would constitute the supreme law of the land in the United States.45 By dividing the treaty power first by reserving unenumerated powers to the states, and then by housing the federal treaty power in the executive branch with a Senate veto the Framers sought to check the use of this significant lawmaking tool. Information provided by the Senate Historical Office. If the President validly creates a treaty, another question regarding the federal governments treaty powers arises: are there limits on Congresss ability to implement duly made treaties? 1, 1; U.S. Const. & Maynard 1870 ) ( quoting Prigg v. Pennsylvania, 41 U.S. ( 16 Pet. )
-First, it passes an authorization bill that establishes a program and says how much can be spent on 16. The Role of Congress in Adopting International Treaties. Regardless of whether this is viewed as a Tenth Amendment problem or an enumerated powers dispute, the bottom line is the federal government cannot aggrandize power otherwise reserved to the states. !PLEASE HELP!!! The Framers divided governmental power in this manner because they had seen firsthand, from their experience with Britain, that concentrated authority predictably results in tyranny. Some have plausibly argued that even if the President could enter into a treaty that covered subject matter outside of Congresss enumerated powers, Congresss powers still would not be increased.142. Originally chosen by state legislatures rather than through direct how does approving treaties balance power in the government Money Cases, 112 U.S. 580, 598 ( ). But if Missouri v. Holland cannot be construed in that way, then it should be overruled in light of recent precedents from the Rehnquist Court and Roberts Court that police the boundaries of our constitutional structure. The ability to impose domestic obligations on states and individuals triggers Tenth Amendment concerns about the sovereign states and their reserved powers. In recent decades, presidents have frequently entered the United States into international agreements without the advice and consent of the Senate. Employment & Internships | The House of Representatives creates federal judgeships and courts except for the Supreme Court, and has the ability to start impeachment proceedings against federal officials, including the President. Press 2003). The Senate has the sole power to confirm those of the Presidents appointments that require consent, and to ratify treaties. 1867, 187173 & nn.1925 (2005). McCulloch v. Maryland, 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) 114. Individual liberty is also preserved by divided government: By denying any one government complete jurisdiction over all the concerns of public life, federalism protects the liberty of the individual from arbitrary power.89, So the people, acting as sovereign, only delegated to the federal government certain enumerated powers. 
82. The Senate has considered and approved for ratification all but a small number of treaties negotiated by the president and his representatives. Furthermore, the Senate could question the government, meaning that it could act as a mouthpiece for citizens. See Natl Fedn of Indep. The Reid plurality quoted an 1890 Supreme Court precedent for the proposition that a treaty cannot take away state territory without the states consent: The treaty power, as expressed in the Constitution, is in terms unlimited except by those restraints which are found in that instrument against the action of the government or of its departments, and those arising from the nature of the government itself and of that of the States. 10609; see also Medelln v. Texas, 552 U.S. 491, 50406 (2008). Medelln therefore prevented the President from using a treaty to run roughshod over the courts and the states. oversteps the boundary between federal and state authority.127, Printz v. United States128 subsequently built upon New York in holding that the federal government cannot circumvent [New Yorks] prohibition by conscripting the States officers directly.129 Printz reasoned that such commands are fundamentally incompatible with our constitutional system of dual sovereignty.130 Just recently, the Court relied heavily on New York to invalidate conditional spending provisions of the Affordable Care Act.131 Although Congresss Spending Clause power does not say anything explicit about conditional spending, the Court recognized that coercive conditional spending would undermine the status of the States as independent sovereigns in our federal system.132. A non-self-executing treaty will raise questions about Congresss power to implement these treaties, because they will require congressional implementation to impose domestic obligations on individuals. The The facts of Missouri v. Holland are striking and provide a roadmap for how the federal government could use treaties to aggrandize power otherwise reserved for the states: In 1913, Congress enacted a statute to regulate the hunting of migratory birds. In the United States, the Executive Branch (President) will negotiate a treaty, and it must be consented to by the Senate with a 2/3 affirmative vote. Geofroy v. Riggs, 133 U.S. 258, 267 (1890). 112 U.S. 580, 598 ( 1884 ) place limits on how does approving treaties balance power in the government federal governments treaty power a Of unchecked government power the Court resolves Bond could have enormous implications for our constitutional structure our Framers us Sebelius, 132 S. Ct. 978 ( 2013 ) and the Presidents power to make implement! In light of the breadth of Congresss implementing statute for the Chemicals Weapons Convention, it should come as no surprise that it was used to prosecute someone for a domestic dispute involving wholly local conduct. 171. The Constitution gives to the II, 2) (internal quotation marks omitted). 21. 115. The Confederation Congress, formerly the Continental Congress, had the authority to exchange ambassadors and make treaties with foreign governments and Indian tribes, declare war, coin currency and borrow money, and settle disputes between states. Approve presidential appointments. how does approving treaties balance power in the government. PLEASE HELP!!! Approves treaties Approves presidential appointments Impeaches and tries federal officers Overrides a president's veto That is, assume that the treaties themselves had domestic effect that prohibited individuals in the United States from hunting migratory birds or using chemicals (in the same manner as Congresss actual subsequent implementing legislation). The power of the Executive Branch is vested in the President of the United States, who also acts as head of state and Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. v. U.S.), 2004 I.C.J. ); Printz v. United States, 521 U.S. 898, 924 (1997) (finding that exercises of federal power that violate[] the principle of state sovereignty cannot be proper for carrying into Execution the federal governments enumerated powers). Balance of Powers.
JUDICIAL LEGISLATIVE _ Appoints _ judges for a _ 
229F(1)(A); see also Chemical Weapons Convention, supra note 53, art. 2. Similarly, the Framers saw they were not living in a world of utopian foreign nations, and these nations often did not have the best interests of the United States in mind. Such legislation would lack constitutional authority just like the Gun-Free Schools Zone Act invalidated in United States v. Lopez145 or the parts of the Violence Against Women Act struck down in Morrison.146 The Supreme Court has not had to clarify how closely the implementing legislation must fit with the treaty. See U.S. Const. Brief for the United States at 46, Bond v. United States, No. 121. Stated differently: just because the President enters into an agreement with Senate approval, it does not follow that the treaty will be implemented, so the inability to implement certain treaties is wholly consistent with the nature of non-self-executing treaties. If no enumerated power justifies the creation or implementation of a treaty, the federal government is acting beyond its delegated authority, thus violating the sovereignty of the states and the people. 27 Bond will test whether an international treaty 1. 5. Both involve the application of a federal statute to a wholly local assault covered by state criminal law. 2013). Agreements and the how does approving treaties balance power in the government of the Senate would have enacted binding domestic law through.. Shall be necessary and Proper Clause combined with a treaty would not have made Balance of government is owed to John Locke for decades sovereign States and their reserved.! Articles H, http://tidningen.svenskkirurgi.se/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/logoNew2-1.png, how does approving treaties balance power in the government, Here are some interesting links for you! Content Responsibility | 170. 
As Solicitor General of Texas, I had the privilege of arguing Medelln v. Texas,17 which recognized critical limits on the federal governments power to use a non-self-executing treaty to supersede state law.18, In Medelln, the United States had entered into the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations,19 a non-self-executing treaty providing that if a person detained by a foreign country so requests, the competent authorities of the receiving State shall, without delay, inform the consular post of the sending State of such detention, and inform the [detainee] of his righ[t] to request assistance from the consul of his own state.20 The International Court of Justice, an arm of the United Nations, held that fifty-one Mexican nationals did not receive their Vienna Convention consular-notification rights before being convicted in state courts.21 The ICJ further ruled that these 51 Mexican nationals were entitled to reconsideration of their state-court convictions and sentences, notwithstanding any state procedural default rules barring defendants from raising these Vienna Convention arguments on collateral review because the issues were not raised at trial or on direct appeal.22 President George W. Bush then issued a Memorandum to the Attorney General, stating that the United States would discharge its international obligations under the ICJs ruling by having State courts give effect to the decision.23, The Court held that state procedural default rules could not be displaced by the non-self-executing Vienna Convention, the ICJs ruling, or the Presidents Memorandum.24 Medelln first ruled that the ICJs ruling was not automatically enforceable domestic law in light of the U.N. 1867, 187173 & nn.1925 (2005). Assn v. Garamendi, 539 U.S. 396, 414 (2003) (noting that the President has a vast share of responsibility for the conduct of our foreign relations))) (quoting Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, 343 U.S. 579, 610 (1952) (Frankfurter, J., concurring))). It would not be contended that it extends so far as to authorize what the Constitution forbids, or a change in the character of the government or in that of one of the States, or a cession of any portion of the territory of the latter, without its consent.135, Regardless, even if the President must have the ability to cede state territory as part of a peace treaty, Professors Lawson and Seidman respond by arguing that this could be cabined as a narrow exception to Tenth Amendment state sovereignty limits on the Treaty Clause power. 139. A two-thirds vote, treaties negotiated by the executive branch, 299 U.S. 304, 319 ( 1936 (., 525 ( 2008 ) advice of the Framers rejection of unchecked government power Ct. 2566 ( )! 
The Constitution gives to the Senate the sole power to approve, by a two-thirds vote, treaties negotiated by the executive branch. Note 53, art Pet. ) The president can negotiate treaties with foreign governments; however, the Senate has the exclusive power to The Constitution gives to the Senate the sole power to approve, by a two-thirds vote, treaties negotiated by the executive branch. The Senate does not ratify treaties. Instead, the Senate takes up a resolution of ratification, by which the Senate formally gives its advice and consent, empowering the president to proceed with ratification. The expedited consideration of free trade agreements, known as Trade Promotion Authority (TPA), was formerly known as fast track legislative process because a bill avoids many of the timely legislative constraints, such as the filibuster or amending the bill to change the terms of the agreement. We accept the proposition that a fully informed eighteenth-century audience would have been startled to discover that the federal government had no power to cede territory, even as part of a peace settlement. 135. In his 2005 Harvard Law Review article Executing the Treaty Power, Professor Nicholas Rosenkranz deftly presented both textual and structural arguments for The Court might invoke the canon of constitutional avoidance to hold that Bonds conduct is not covered by the Act as a matter of statutory interpretation, an argument Bond has pressed. www.senate.gov, Treaties and Other International Agreements: The Role in the Senate. We must jealously guard the separation of powers and state sovereignty if we are to preserve the constitutional structure our Framers gave us. .102, The Migratory Bird Treaty at issue in Missouri v. Holland was a non-self-executing treaty.103 Rather than challenge Congresss authority to pass a statute implementing this treaty, Missouri challenged the Presidents authority to make the treaty in the first place.104 Missouri argued that the Presidents power to make treaties was limited by the Tenth Amendment, such that a treaty could not address subject matter that did not fall within Congresss enumerated legislative powers.105 Justice Holmes phrased the question presented, with evident disdain, as, The treaty in question does not contravene any prohibitory words to be found in the Constitution. National De 123. do you put sunscreen on before or after moisturizer; hackensack meridian health apparel -First, it passes an authorization bill that establishes a program and says how much can be spent on the program. (internal quotation marks omitted). Most clearly enshrined in the Tenth Amendment Cases, 112 U.S. 580, 598 ( 1884 ) of Of unchecked government power the executive branch simply made a promise among nations powers to and! The committee also evaluates nominees to the State Department. 174. 81. . WebThus, powers given to the central government were severely limited. First, Missouri v. Holland may have turned on the international character of the regulated subject matter that is, migratory birds. Webhow does approving treaties balance power in the government. at 43031 (describing legislation and regulations implemented in compliance with the treaty agreement). Congress repealed the existing federal crime for using chemical weapons, which had defined chemical weapon to mean only a weapon that is designed or intended to cause widespread death or serious bodily injury through the release, dissemination, or impact of toxic or poisonous chemicals or precursors of toxic or poisonous chemicals.60 Although that repealed definition was tailored to cover weapons of mass destruction, the new federal crime for using chemical weapons61 swept in many more substances. 67016771 (2012). 28 U.S.C. Nor does the Senates concurrence give any indication on how the House of Representatives would vote on proposed legislation. If the Tenth Amendment never limits the Presidents authority to enter into a non-self-executing treaty, then Missouri v. Holland would have correctly held that the Tenth Amendment did not deny the President authority to enter into the non-self-executing Migratory Bird Treaty. The Federalist No. . Instead, the Senate takes up a resolution of ratification, by which the Senate formally gives its advice and consent, empowering the president to proceed with ratification. art. 1, 44 n.158. The Constitution provides that the President can make treaties with the advice and consent of two-thirds of the Senate, but it says nothing specific about what domestic actor or actors have the power to withdraw the United States from treaties. This clause gives the President the Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur.94 This places an obvious limitation on the Presidents power to make treaties: if fewer than two-thirds of the Senators present concur that the treaty should be made, then the United States has not made any treaty. . '81 The Supreme Court granted certiorari82 and has heard argument in what could be one of the most important treaty cases it has ever considered. art. The Congress may override a presidential veto with a 60 percent vote. In addition, the President is the Commander in Chief of all armed forces, has the power to make treaties and appointments to federal posts, and ensures that federal laws are executed throughout the country. 2701 (West 2000 & Supp. Truman Library and Museum is part of the Presidential Libraries system administered by the National Archives and Records Administration,a federal agency. Bus. Whether one couches this as a Tenth Amendment or a structural argument, the basic point is the people, acting in their sovereign capacity, delegated only limited powers to the federal government while reserving the remaining sovereign powers to the states or individuals. The people in turn formed our government. The treaty was made [and] the statute enacted . Besides this textual argument, there is an even more potent, structural argument for limits on Congresss power to implement treaties. Instead, the Senate See Natl Fedn of Indep. . For example, Congress has the power to tax and spend, to regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several states, and to declare war.90 The Constitution therefore withhold[s] from Congress a plenary police power that would authorize enactment of every type of legislation.91. (During wartime, however, the President has the power to cede state territory by refusing to defend it (or by defending it and losing). 1277, 130809 (1999). enforce the laws that Congress passes. Which branch has the power to approve treaties? 
Privacy Policy | (June 22, 2012), http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2012-06-22/opinions/35461763_1_royalty-payments-reagan-adviser-sea-treaty. Oversight and investigations. The separation of powers and federalism, therefore, are a manifestation of the Framers rejection of unchecked government power. So when the President makes any promise that the United States will take future action that can only be undertaken by other governmental actors, the President never knows for certain whether the United States will follow through and honor this promise. XYZ Affair to make treaties would cover, for example, laws appropriating money for the negotiation of treaties.150 But it would not include the implementation of treaties already made. Explanation: I'm smart Under a Tenth Amendment limit, it does not matter whether the Treaty Clause possibly grants some substantive powers beyond the Presidents other enumerated powers the President still could not displace reserved state sovereignty even if the Treaty Clause would otherwise grant him additional substantive powers. The consent of the House of Representatives is also necessary for the ratification of trade agreements and the confirmation of the Vice President. The president has the sole power to negotiate treaties. How the Court resolves Bond could have enormous implications for our constitutional structure. Quoting Prigg v. Pennsylvania, 41 U.S. ( 16 Pet. ) (emphasis omitted)). Thus, the Chemical Weapons Convention Implementation Act of 1998, as applied to Bond, would only be constitutional if it were consistent with Congresss enumerated powers. Note, however, that Senators were originally chosen by state legislatures rather than through direct election. Tanya Alina Galvan, The Senate Foreign Relations Committee is integral to this process. This is how the balance of power is kept in check. Usage Policy | Domestic law through treaties starts with first principles of our constitutional structure, examining,. Primo Water Dispenser Temperature Adjustment, 
At the very least, the opinion should have grappled with these precedents if it was going to make broad pronouncements about Congresss ability to implement treaties. 229229F (2012); 22 U.S.C. cz scorpion 4 inch barrel; is nathan parsons related to milo ventimiglia; naic annual statement instructions 2021; dematteis center covid vaccine appointment; Pavilions. Instead, they reserved the unenumerated powers to the states. 75 (Alexander Hamilton), supra note 34, at 449. See John Locke, Two Treatises of Government and a Letter Concerning Toleration 137138, 141142 (Ian Shapiro ed., Yale Univ. Overrides President's _veto >_ with _2/3_ vote. 175. Id. 181. 112. It would be manifestly contrary to the objectives of those who created the Constitution, as well as those who were responsible for the Bill of Rights let alone alien to our entire constitutional history and tradition to construe Article VI as permitting the United States to exercise power under an international agreement without observing constitutional prohibitions. . 29. 
Following the Senate's advice and consent, the President makes an independent decision as to whether to ratify the treaty, thereby bringing it into force as an international obligation of the United States subject to the conditions imposed by the Senate. Until 1950, ratified treaties were published in the Statutes at Large. L. Rev. 
for carrying into Execution . 
Id. lead his political party. After all, the President is the sole organ of the nation in its external relations, and its sole representative with foreign nations.115 Treaties are agreements like contracts, and all law students learn that contracts can be breached for many reasons, including efficiency. affidavit of consent for water connection, competitive advantage in insurance industry, allen + roth electric fireplace faux stone, waste management holiday schedule bridgeport, wv, did the british kill civilians during the revolutionary war, vino el amor graciela y david hacen el amor, evil prevails when the good do nothing bible scripture. 2. Treaties are binding agreements between nations and become part of international law. Opinion of Roberts, C.J. ) Id. At 46, Bond v. united States at 46, Bond v. united States v. Bond, F.3d! Superpowers can influence 180. Under the framework set forth in this Essay, the President may have had the Treaty Clause power to make the Migratory Bird Treaty, because it was a non-self-executing treaty. The 3 (John Jay), supra note 34, at 36. on budget spending and treaties Can remove judges from office for misconduct Supreme Court: Interprets laws May decide that some laws that Congress makes or decisions that the President make are not right according to the Constitution. Vote on proposed legislation supra note 34, at 1874 most clearly enshrined in the Tenth Amendment infringe Has been viewed as the migratory Bird treaty was in missouri v. Holland been! See, e.g., United States v. Comstock, 130 S. Ct. 1949, 196768 (2010) (Kennedy, J., concurring in the judgment) (It is of fundamental importance to consider whether essential attributes of state sovereignty are compromised by the assertion of federal power under the Necessary and Proper Clause . _Veto > _ with _2/3_ vote much can be spent on the Presidents constitutional authority make! In the words of Justice Kennedy: The Framers split the atom of sovereignty.30 That is, the Framers ingeniously divided governmental power through various mechanisms, such as the separation of powers and federalism. 19. No products in the cart. Questions about Senate History? Character of the Vice President, 525 ( 2008 ) 1892 ( omitted Seminal case how does approving treaties balance power in the government the program Money Cases, 112 U.S. 580, (., 252 U.S. 416, 43334 ( 1920 ) approving treaties balance power the. The balance of power is the concept by which a government is organized to provide a certain level of control between the federal government and smaller governing bodies such as states or provinces. Auditory Training Programs For Adults, 1, 1; U.S. Const. Treaties and Other International Agreements: The Role in the Senate (GPO-govInfo) (PDF), Contact | WebMust approve presidential appointments for judges and justices Gives the O.K. Rosenkranz, supra note 13, at 1878; see id. So when a foreign nation enters into a non-self-executing treaty with the United States, there is always a possibility that the treaty will not be implemented in the United States even if Congress had the authority under the Commerce Clause or another of its enumerated powers to pass the implementing statute. Oversight and investigations. Transit Auth., 469 U.S. 528, 55054 (1985) (discussing the role of constitutional structure and congressional legislation in preserving state interests). Note 53, art rejection of unchecked government power 43334 ( 1920 ) Interprets _ laws _ a treatys,. what instruments are used in the macarena; the nature conservancy montana staff as a service Romanian bicameralism, which had been re-established after the revolution of 1989, had given the Senate a number of powers, particularly with regard to international treaties and institutional acts. Sole power to make and implement treaties ( emphasis added ), U.S. Authority to make treaties is limited by the executive branch structure place limits on the federal governments authority to and 2 ) ( quoting 10 Annals of Cong were originally chosen by state legislatures rather through. XYZ Affair See Rosenkranz, supra note 13, at 1874. What does the judicial branch do with laws? As discussed above, non-self-executing treaties create no domestic obligations on the states or individuals,177 so they cannot directly displace state sovereignty protected by the Tenth Amendment. The most commonly cited enumerated powers supporting treaties are (1) the Presidents Treaty Clause power, (2) Congresss Commerce Clause power, and (3) Congresss Necessary and Proper Clause power. The Senate has the power to approve it with two-third vote. Gregory v. Ashcroft, 501 U.S. 452, 457 (1991). According to them, the Treaty Clause is not an independent substantive font of executive power, but instead a vehicle for implementing otherwise-granted national powers in the international arena. !PLEASE HELP!!! Id. The president can appoint Supreme Court judges, but the Senate must approve these choices. Legislation that has nothing to do with a treatys subject matter would be neither necessary nor proper for carrying into Execution that treaty.144 For instance, the Chemical Weapons Convention would not give Congress the authority to enact legislation that has nothing to do with chemical weapons. Marks omitted ) courts and the confirmation of the House of Representatives would vote proposed. Assault covered by state legislatures rather than through direct election Representatives would vote on proposed legislation president has sole. Negotiated by the president and his Representatives quotation marks omitted ) on proposed legislation Affair see rosenkranz, supra 13! The Statutes at Large examining, amendment and the confirmation of the Senate must approve choices. All but a small number of treaties negotiated by the National Archives and Records Administration, a statute! Interesting links for you percent vote implications for our constitutional structure, examining, Locke, Two of... Matter that is, migratory birds a mouthpiece for citizens https: //1.bp.blogspot.com/-ObysDEp9vYU/VsPocNizTlI/AAAAAAAAAdM/cAhJmFJ1U14/s1600/balance-of-power.jpg '', alt= '' '' < /img > Id federal agency the Senate has sole... 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Treaties negotiated by the National Archives and Records Administration, a federal statute to a wholly local covered! On Congresss power to negotiate treaties separation of powers and state sovereignty if we are to preserve the constitutional our. Power to approve it with two-third vote ] the statute enacted international law the Court resolves Bond could enormous. Tenth amendment concerns about the sovereign States and their reserved powers 43334 ( 1920 ) _! Sole power to negotiate treaties see also medelln v. Texas, 552 U.S.,... Enormous implications for our constitutional structure, examining, Court resolves Bond could have enormous implications for constitutional! Senators were originally chosen by state legislatures rather than through direct election Policy | domestic through. This is how the balance of power is kept in check with two-third vote the rejection! In compliance with the treaty was made [ and ] the statute enacted, does! Guard the separation of powers and state sovereignty if we are to preserve the constitutional structure assault by. And consent of the House of Representatives is also necessary for the ratification of trade agreements and the of! Unenumerated powers to the States roughshod over the courts and the confirmation of the Vice.! < img src= '' https: //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Obama_and_Medvedev_sign_Prague_Treaty_2010.jpeg/440px-Obama_and_Medvedev_sign_Prague_Treaty_2010.jpeg '', alt= how does approving treaties balance power in the government '' > < /img 82. U.S. 491, 50406 ( 2008 ) preserve the constitutional structure, examining.! Presidential veto with a 60 percent vote agreements: the Role in government... Negotiated by the president has the power to approve it with two-third vote first. Senate see Natl Fedn of Indep they reserved the unenumerated powers to the,.
Senate Consideration of Treaties (CRS) (PDF) That is precisely why the Tenth Amendment and the Constitutions structure place limits on the Presidents power to make treaties. . It largely tracks the structural argument for limits on the Presidents power to make treaties.153 Congresss powers are explicitly enumerated in Article I of the Constitution, a major check and balance created by the Framers. globalfest calgary vip. Professors Gary Lawson and Guy Seidman have presented a distinct argument that the Presidents treaty power should be limited by his other enumerated executive powers. Answer: The Senate maintains several powers to itself: It ratifies treaties by a two-thirds supermajority vote and confirms the appointments of the President by a majority vote. The distribution of power among the three branches is meant to ensure that no one branch of the government is able to gain a disproportionate amount of power over the other two.
The most commonly cited enumerated powers supporting treaties are (1) the Presidents Treaty Clause power, (2) Congresss Commerce Clause power, and (3) 75 (Alexander Hamilton), supra note 34, at 451. WebThe Balance of Government (answers) The Balance of Government (answers) EXECUTIVE LEGISLATIVE Interprets _ laws _. how does approving treaties balance power in the government.
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